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The Black Panther Party or BPP (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was a revolutionary black nationalist and socialist organization active in the United States from 1966 until 1982, with its only international chapter operating in Algeria from 1969 until 1972. At its inception in October 1966, the Black Panther Party's core practice was its armed citizens' patrols to monitor the behavior of police officers and challenge police brutality in Oakland, California. In 1969, community social programs became a core activity of party members.〔Austin 2006; Bloom and Martin, 2013; March, 2010; Joseph, 2006.〕 The Black Panther Party instituted a variety of community social programs, most extensively the Free Breakfast for Children Programs, and community health clinics.〔Pearson 152.〕〔Bloom and Martin, chapter 7.〕 Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover called the party "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country", and he supervised an extensive program (COINTELPRO) of surveillance, infiltration, perjury, police harassment, and many other tactics designed to undermine Panther leadership, incriminate party members, discredit and criminalize the Party, and drain the organization of resources and manpower. The program was also accused of using assassination against Black Panther members.〔''Final report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, (United States Senate''. )〕 Government oppression initially contributed to the growth of the party as killings and arrests of Panthers increased support for the party within the black community and on the broad political left, both of whom valued the Panthers as powerful force opposed to de facto segregation and the military draft. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, then suffered a series of contractions. After being vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated.〔Thomas Barker, (''Black and White: The Liberal Media and the Ideology of Black Victimhood'' ) , CounterPunch, 2015.〕 In-fighting among Party leadership, caused largely by the FBI's COINTELPRO operation, led to expulsions and defections that decimated the membership.〔Bloom and Martin, conclusion.〕 Popular support for the Party declined further after reports appeared detailing the group's involvement in illegal activities such as drug dealing and extortion schemes directed against Oakland merchants.〔Philip Foner, ''The Black Panthers Speak'', Da Capo Press, 2002.〕 By 1972 most Panther activity centered on the national headquarters and a school in Oakland, where the party continued to influence local politics. Party contractions continued throughout the 1970s. By 1980 the Black Panther Party had just 27 members.〔Austin, ''Up Against the Wall'', 2006, p. 331.〕 The history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Scholars have characterized the Black Panther Party as the most influential black movement organization of the late 1960s, and "the strongest link between the domestic Black Liberation Struggle and global opponents of American imperialism".〔Bloom and Martin, 3.〕 Other commentators have described the Party as more criminal than political, characterized by "defiant posturing over substance".〔Pearson, 340.〕 ==Origins== The sweeping migration of black families out of the South during World War II transformed Oakland and cities throughout the West and the North.〔Murch, 2010, p. 4.〕 A new generation of young blacks growing up in these cities faced new conditions, new forms of poverty and racism unfamiliar to their parents, and sought to develop new forms of politics to address them.〔Murch, 2010, p. 5.〕 Black Panther Party membership "consisted of recent migrants whose families traveled north and west to escape the southern racial regime, only to be confronted with new forms of segregation and repression".〔Murch, 2010, p. 6.〕 In the early 1960s, the insurgent Civil Rights Movement had dismantled the Jim Crow system of racial caste subordination using the tactics of non-violent civil disobedience, and demanding full citizenship rights for black people.〔Bloom and Martin, 2013, p. 11.〕 But not much changed in the cities of the North and West. As the wartime jobs which drew much of the black migration "fled to the suburbs along with white residents", the black population was concentrated in poor "urban ghettos" with high unemployment, and substandard housing, mostly excluded from political representation, top universities, and the middle class.〔Bloom and Martin, 2013, pp. 11-12.〕 Police departments were almost all white.〔Bloom and Martin, 2013, p. 12.〕 In 1966, only 16 of Oakland's 661 police officers were African American.〔Jessica McElrath, ''The Black Panthers'', published as a part of (afroamhistory.about.com ). Retrieved December 17, 2005.〕 Insurgent civil rights practices proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had "led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience" such as SNCC and CORE went into decline.〔 By 1966 a "Black Power ferment" emerged, consisting largely of young urban blacks, posing a question the Civil Rights Movement could not answer: "how would black people in America win not only formal citizenship rights, but actual economic and political power?"〔 Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed a rich ferment of study groups and political organizations, and it is out of this ferment that the Black Panther Party emerged.〔Murch, 2010, pp. 5-7.〕 In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense). In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations.〔Seale, 1970, part I; Newton, 1973, parts 2-3; Bloom and Martin, 2013, chapter 1; Murch, 2010, part II and chapter 5.〕 Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at Merritt College.〔Seale, 1970, p. 13.〕 They joined Donald Warden’s Afro-American Association, where they read widely, debated, and organized in an emergent black nationalist tradition inspired by Malcolm X and others.〔Murch, 2010, chapter 3.〕 Eventually dissatisfied with Warden’s accommodationism, they developed a revolutionary anti-imperialist perspective working with more active and militant groups like the Soul Students Advisory Council and the Revolutionary Action Movement.〔(Robin D. G. Kelley "Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution" ), ''Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics'', Vol. 1, No. 4, Fall 1999 (Columbia University Press).〕〔Bloom and Martin, 2013 pp. 30-36.〕 While bringing in a paycheck, jobs running youth service programs at the North Oakland Neighborhood Anti-Poverty Center allowed them to develop a revolutionary nationalist approach to community service, later a key element in the Black Panther Party’s "community survival programs."〔Seale, 1970, chapters 6–7.〕 Dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the "brothers on the block", Huey and Bobby sought to take matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, an unarmed young black man in San Francisco, Newton observed the violent rebellion that followed. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of organizations seeking to build Black Power. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a force, and believed that if he could stand up to the police, he could organize that force into political power. Inspired by Robert F. Williams' armed resistance to the KKK (and Williams' book ''Negroes with Guns''),〔("Negroes With Guns-Description" ), Wayne State University Press website.〕 Newton studied California gun law until he knew it better than many police officers. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the Watts Rebellion, he decided to organize patrols to follow the police around to monitor for incidents of brutality. But with a crucial difference: his patrols would carry loaded guns.〔Bloom and Martin, 2013, pp. 30-39.〕 On October 29, 1966, Stokely Carmichael – a leader of SNCC – championed the call for "Black Power" and came to Berkeley to keynote a Black Power conference. At the time, he was promoting the armed organizing efforts of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) in Alabama and their use of the Black Panther symbol. Newton and Seale decided to adopt the Black Panther logo and form their own organization called the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense.〔Bloom and Martin, 2013, pp. 39–44.〕 Newton and Seale decided on a uniform of blue shirts, black pants, black leather jackets, black berets.〔Pearson, 109.〕 Sixteen-year-old Bobby Hutton was their first recruit. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Black Panther Party」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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